People protecting forests, rivers and Indigenous territories are increasingly forming their own self-defence groups as the risks of violence, murder and intimidation grow in areas affected by organised crime, illegal mining, logging and drug trafficking, according to a new report by the environmental watchdog Global Witness.
The report, which examined killings of environmental and land defenders in 2025, recorded 124 deaths globally, meaning a person defending land or nature was killed approximately once every three days. Around 85% of the documented killings occurred in Latin America, where criminal networks have increasingly expanded into remote forest regions and Indigenous territories.
Colombia recorded the highest number of killings, with 39 defenders killed during the year, followed by Brazil with 26 and Honduras with 12. In Asia, the Philippines recorded 12 deaths, with several killings occurring in the context of actions by state security forces, according to the report.
Global Witness said organised crime groups or professional assassins were implicated in more than one-third of the killings recorded in 2025. The organisation linked the violence to the expansion of criminal activities including narcotics trafficking, illegal logging and unregulated gold mining. In many cases, defenders become targets because their efforts to protect forests and Indigenous lands interfere with criminal operations.
The number of killings documented in 2025 was lower than in the preceding two years. Global Witness recorded 196 deaths in 2023 and 142 in 2024. However, the organisation cautioned that the figures are likely to represent only part of the actual toll because gathering information is particularly difficult in conflict zones and countries where authoritarian governments restrict access to information.
The latest figures bring the number of people killed or disappeared since Global Witness began recording such cases in 2012 to 2,375. Indigenous communities and small-scale farmers remain particularly vulnerable. Almost three-quarters of the people killed in 2025 belonged to Indigenous communities or were small-scale farmers defending their land, according to the watchdog.
Faced with inadequate protection, some communities have responded by establishing territorial defence organisations of their own. One example highlighted in the report is the Kakataibo Indigenous Guard in Peru’s Amazon region. Six leaders from the community have been killed since 2020 amid increasing incursions by criminal groups. The guard, which began in 2022 with several dozen volunteers, has since expanded to more than 150 members operating from 10 bases.
The organisation’s commander, Segundo Ispón, said protecting the territory was an important part of the community’s identity and also contributed to protecting the wider environment. However, he warned that the risks facing the younger generation were increasing.
At least a dozen other communities in Peru have established similar self-defence groups, while comparable organisations have existed for years in parts of Colombia and Brazil. Such groups themselves remain vulnerable to violence. Global Witness documented the killings of seven Indigenous guards in 2025, with organised crime allegedly linked to at least five of those deaths.
The threat is also moving deeper into remote forest territories as drug-trafficking networks expand. In Peru’s Ucayali basin, coca production increased by 600% between 2019 and 2023, according to Global Witness. The growth has encouraged criminal groups to establish new smuggling routes, including illegal roads and trails through forest areas.
Local communities also face concerns about corruption, with the report saying that some politicians and police officials are allegedly influenced or paid by trafficking organisations. Environmental defenders who challenge illegal activities can consequently face threats from both criminal groups and individuals with links to local power structures.
The situation has been further complicated by reductions in international assistance. Global Witness said cuts to overseas development programmes, including the dismantling of USAID under the Trump administration, have affected initiatives supporting Indigenous communities and land stewardship. The watchdog argued that reduced external support has left some defenders increasingly exposed to organised crime.
In some countries, government responses to drug trafficking have also pushed criminal networks into increasingly remote areas. Military operations targeting coca cultivation and trafficking have been accompanied by concerns that criminal organisations are moving deeper into Indigenous territories.
Beyond killings, environmental and land defenders face other forms of pressure, including criminal prosecutions, intimidation and online smear campaigns. Global Witness said these non-lethal attacks can restrict the ability of communities to organise and challenge activities threatening their land and natural resources.
The report’s findings highlight the growing overlap between environmental protection, Indigenous rights and organised crime in some of the world’s most vulnerable forest regions. For communities living in these territories, defending land and natural resources is increasingly becoming a security issue as criminal networks seek access to forests, minerals, agricultural land and trafficking routes.
